It was just part of who I was. Perhaps it was because I grew up in a large Filipino-American community in the San Francisco Bay Area. Within a 20-mile radius were my 17 first cousins (and about 70 ...Filipino and American prisoners of war marched from Mariveles to San Fernando. (Image credit: Bettmann / Getty Images) The opening bombardment caused brush fires that so terrified the Filipinos ... The ensuing Philippine-American War lasted three years and resulted in the death of over 4,200 American and over 20,000 Filipino combatants. As many as 200,000 Filipino civilians died from violence, famine, and disease. The decision by U.S. policymakers to annex the Philippines was not without domestic controversy. Nov 14, 2015 · Malaria, dysentery, beriberi, and a host of other diseases swept through the crowds of prisoners who died at a rate of 400 men per day. Conditions were so dire that by July 1942, the Japanese replaced the camp’s commander, moved the American prisoners to a camp in Cabanatuan, and paroled the Filipino prisoners. On May 6, 1942, U.S. Lieutenant General Jonathan Wainwright surrenders all U.S. troops in the Philippines to the Japanese. The island of Corregidor remained the last Allied stronghold in the ...Oct 20, 2022 · Other Filipino American Catholics who spoke with The Times described experiences where their faith was a positive influence on their mental well-being. Joe Nava, 38, a Texas resident, said he found solace in his faith during challenging times in his life — when he and his wife endured a miscarriage and when he was diagnosed with bipolar disorder. In the United States, October marks Filipino-American History Month. While this month purposefully celebrates the histories and stories of the Filipino-American culture, I want to point out the similarities the separate Filipino and American cultures have. Born out of shared historical events, the separate cultures of Americans and Filipinos ...You see, Filipino banishment goes back to the fact that there was a Philippine-American War that lasted for 15 years and during which thousands—some say 1.4 million—Filipinos were killed by ... The demographics of Filipino Americans describe a heterogeneous group of people in the United States who trace their ancestry to the Philippines. As of the 2020 Census, there were 4.4 million Filipino Americans, including Multiracial Americans who were part Filipino living in the US. Filipino Americans constitute the third-largest population of ... Build a stronger remote team by understanding Filipino work culture. . Yes, Filipinos share a lot of similarities with the US — they watch the same TV shows, listen to the same songs, and even tune in to Western current events. But they also have a …In 1988, the FANHS designated October to celebrate Filipino-American history in honor of the first Filipinos to arrive to North America on Oct. 18, 1587 in California. This year in particular marks the 120th anniversary of the declaration of Philippines independence from Spain in 1898, and by relation, the …The 20th Biennial Filipino American National Historical Society (FANHS) National Conference 2024: "En[compass]ing Our Journeys" will be hosted by the FANHS Houston, TX chapter. The conference will be held on July 16th - 20th at United Way of Greater Houston (50 Waugh Dr, Houston, TX 77007). Visit fanhs2024.com for …The Philippine-American War, 1899-1902. After its defeat in the Spanish-American War of 1898, Spain ceded its longstanding colony of the Philippines to the United States in the Treaty of Paris. On February 4, 1899, just two days before the U.S. Senate ratified the treaty, fighting broke out between American forces and Filipino nationalists led by Emilio …The Japanese intended for captured Filipino and American soldiers to march the roughly sixty-five miles from the Bataan peninsula to a railhead inland, from which they would be moved by train to a prisoner of war camp. The victors, however, were unprepared for the tidal wave of around 75,000 prisoners (65,000 Filipino, 10,000 …The American Period (1898-1946) marked a significant turning point in Philippine architecture, characterized by the fusion of American and Filipino influences. This era witnessed the rise of Art Deco and Neoclassical architectural styles, paving the way for the emergence of modern architecture in the country.American and Filipino troops on a burial detail weeks after the April 1942 Bataan Death March, a 66-mile ordeal in that remains a hallmark of brutality.There is historical evidence that Filipinos have been immigrating to the Americas since the 16th century and forming permanent settlements in the United States since the mid-1800s. Their experiences and contributions, however, have been minimized and generally received very little attention in history books. Moreover, whenever …Larry Itliong was a Filipino American labor rights leader who fought for equal pay and better living conditions for farm and cannery workers along the West Coast and …The way data on racial groups is typically collected in the U.S. has sidelined smaller Asian populations like Hmong, Lao and Filipino Americans for decades. Now, there are growing calls for change.Although it's impossible to find exact figures, roughly half of the 24,000 Americans and nearly three-quarters of the 64,000 Filipino troops died during the Japanese occupation.On April 3, 1946, Lt. General Masaharu Homma was executed. His wife appealed to American general Douglas MacArthur to spare his life; her pleas were denied. Atrocities in the Philippines. On ...Battle of Manila Bay, (May 1, 1898), defeat of the Spanish Pacific fleet by the U.S. Navy, resulting in the fall of the Philippines and contributing to the final U.S. victory in the Spanish-American War. The resounding American victory made Commodore George Dewey a national hero and helped establish the reputation of the United States as a ...Mar 23, 2020 · The Bataan Death March was Japan's brutal forced march of American and Filipino prisoners of war during World War II. The 63-mile march began on April 9, 1942, with at least 72,000 POWs from the southern end of the Bataan Peninsula in the Philippines. Some sources say 75,000 soldiers were taken prisoner after the surrender at Bataan, which ... They had no armor, no air support, and little hope, but the American and Filipino troops on Luzon and the Bataan peninsula waged a fighting retreat that was the longest and most gallant in U.S. military history.The main reason that Filipino Americans are less visible in American life is because of the erasure of U.S. imperialism from American life. The starting point of relations between the United ...The history of Filipino Americans begins indirectly, when Filipino slaves and indentured servants first visited what is now the United States aboard Novohispanic ships sailing to and from modern Mexico and Asia, loaded with cargo and prisoners. [1] [2 ]The first ship carrying these slaves docked around Morro Bay in Alta …As Filipino-American sociologist Anthony Christian Ocampo, author of The Latinos of Asia: How Filipinos Break the Rule of Race, plainly states, “You can’t just forget the three-and-a-half century Spanish influence in the Philippines.” See below for to learn more about the Hispanic identity of the Philippines, Filipinos, and Filipino ...Meanwhile, in the Philippines, Bataan fell in April, and the 70,000 American and Filipino soldiers captured there were forced to undertake a death march in which at least 7,000 perished. Then, in ... Philippine-American War. U.S. troops in the Philippines during the Philippine-American War (1899–1902). Meanwhile, the Filipino government had fled northward. In November 1899 the Filipinos resorted to guerrilla warfare, with all its devastating consequences. The major operations of the insurrection were conducted in Luzon, and, throughout ... The number of Filipinos in the U.S. swelled from 5,600 in 1920 to about 56,000 in 1930, with substantial Filipino-American communities springing up near San Diego, in …The Philippine-American War, 1899-1902. After its defeat in the Spanish-American War of 1898, Spain ceded its longstanding colony of the Philippines to the United States in the Treaty of Paris. On February 4, 1899, just two days before the U.S. Senate ratified the treaty, fighting broke out between American forces and Filipino nationalists led by Emilio …Larry Itliong was a Filipino American labor rights leader who fought for equal pay and better living conditions for farm and cannery workers along the West Coast and …American propaganda poster of a Filipino guerrilla. One guerrilla force the Americans worked with closely was the Wa Chi, a group of Chinese-Filipinos (immigrants and decedents) who fought to protect ethnic Chinese from Japanese cruelty. This group numbered about 700 men.Feb 16, 2024 · Philippine-American War, war between the United States and Filipino revolutionaries from 1899 to 1902, an insurrection that may be seen as a continuation of the Philippine Revolution against Spanish rule. It began after the United States assumed sovereignty of the Philippines following the defeat of Spain in the Spanish-American War. This paper describes initial findings from our ongoing research on Filipino American political participation. We seek to understand why, despite its long history and considerable number in the U.S.A., the group remains politically invisible. We interviewed 33 politically active community members to gain information and insight on how and why ...One of the earliest heroes of the Filipino-American experience was the novelist and poet Carlos Bulosan (ca. 1911–1956), who came to the United States as a teenager and worked menial jobs while writing two minor masterpieces, the 1946 semiautobiographical novel America Is in the Heart and a 1943 essay, “The …THE U.S.-PHILIPPINES ALLIANCE. The Philippines is the United States’ oldest ally in the Indo-Pacific. Since 1951, the U.S.-Philippines alliance has advanced …The US conquest of the Philippines, 1898-1902. Filipino casualties on the first day of the war. An account of the American takeover of the Philippines, beginning with the US defeating Spain, and ending with it brutally suppressing Filipino resistance, written by Stephen Kinzer. Submitted by Steven. on December 14, 2016.This one example reveals how Filipino Americans and Mexican Americans have stood together in the struggle for equal rights and fair treatment. For that reason, I …Findings indicate that participants (de)legitimize whiteness, (dis)obey assimilation, and (mis)recognize colonialism. Discussion suggests how participants engaged in performative assimilation, paradoxical postcolonialism, and panoptic whiteness. Finally, different trajectories for Filipinos and Filipino/a/x Americans are offered.Larry Itliong was a Filipino American labor rights leader who fought for equal pay and better living conditions for farm and cannery workers along the West Coast and …Mar 10, 2023 · The United States’ drive to extend influence across the Pacific instigated a Philippine American War. Fighting broke out on Feb. 4, 1899, and eventually far exceeded that against Spain. At the outbreak, the U.S. had only a small amount of troops in the Philippines compared to Aguinaldo’s 40,000 fighters. U.S.-PHILIPPINES RELATIONS. The United States established diplomatic relations with the Philippines in 1946. U.S.-Philippine relations are based on strong …For three of those years they were studying nutritional sciences, home economics or agricultural science. Food was the way of either introducing Filipino commodities into the “global” trade, or getting Filipinos to start to think like Americans, about the nutritional value of what they put into their bodies. 13:10 American missionaries arriveIt goes back to a key concept in Filipino-American history: the 1960s immigration of Filipinos to the United States to mitigate the country’s nursing shortage. These Filipino immigrants utilized their nursing careers as a means to survive in the U.S., and most of them were successful. They then encouraged their children to pursue healthcare ...Filipino American history makes me think about the story of Olympic diver Victoria Manalo Draves , who reminds us to never underestimate the strength of a Filipina American woman. Born and raised in San Francisco in 1924 to an English mother and Filipino father, Manalo Draves encountered the racism of her diving club when it insisted that she ...The Philippine-American War was an armed conflict fought from February 4, 1899 to July 2, 1902 between forces of the United States and Filipino revolutionaries led by President Emilio Aguinaldo.While the United States viewed the conflict as an insurrection standing in the way of extending its “manifest destiny” …American and Filipino forces make up the firing squad. More to Read . Powerful earthquake causes widespread panic in Philippines. Dec. 3, 2023. Philippine president blames ‘foreign terrorists ...The Republic of the Philippines is a U.S. treaty ally dating back to 1951, but shared experiences of American and Filipino forces in war date back to the turn of the twentieth century. Both countries have long assisted each other with military operations, including Philippine participation in the Vietnam War and, more recently U.S. support to ... The issue was no longer in doubt. American and Filipino soldiers scrambled from their foxholes, defense lines crumbled, and Japanese troops with fixed bayonets broke through the front on the night of April 6. The enemy burst through the left flank of Parker’s U.S. Second Corps and pushed it back 10 miles in 48 hours. Filipino Americans are Americans of Filipino ancestry. Filipinos in North America were first documented in the 16th century and other small settlements beginning in the 18th century. Mass migration did not begin until after the end of the Spanish–American War at the end of the 19th century, when the Philippines was ceded from Spain to the United States in the Treaty of Paris. On April 3, 1946, Lt. General Masaharu Homma was executed. His wife appealed to American general Douglas MacArthur to spare his life; her pleas were denied. Atrocities in the Philippines. On ...Study with Quizlet and memorize flashcards containing terms like During the _____ nearly 10,000 American and Filipino troops died from exposure, disease, and cruel treatment by Japanese captors., In 1940, America leased fifty obsolete _____ to Great Britain in exchange for naval bases., AntiSemitism is hatred directed at _____. and more.One of the earliest heroes of the Filipino-American experience was the novelist and poet Carlos Bulosan (ca. 1911–1956), who came to the United States as a teenager and worked menial jobs while writing two minor masterpieces, the 1946 semiautobiographical novel America Is in the Heart and a 1943 essay, “The …Key Points: The Philippine-American War lasted from 1899 to 1902. American forces and Filipino nationalists, led by Emilio Aguinaldo, were the main parties involved.: The war resulted in the deaths of over 4,200 American and over 20,000 Filipino combatants, as well as approximately 200,000 Filipino civilians.: Both sides committed …The Japanese intended for captured Filipino and American soldiers to march the roughly sixty-five miles from the Bataan peninsula to a railhead inland, from which they would be moved by train to a prisoner of war camp. The victors, however, were unprepared for the tidal wave of around 75,000 prisoners (65,000 Filipino, 10,000 … Emilio Aguinaldo. There were two phases to the Philippine-American War. The first phase, from February to November of 1899, was dominated by Aguinaldo’s ill-fated attempts to fight a conventional war against the better-trained and equipped American troops. The second phase was marked by the Filipinos’ shift to guerrilla-style warfare. . This period, lasting until 1946, saw the Philippines undergo a transformation in terms of governance, education, language, and economic policies. The American Period in the Philippines began in 1898 after the Spanish-American War. The United States promised self-government and eventual independence to the Filipino people.Rule under Spain and the U.S. resulted in widespread internalized oppression referred to by ethnic studies scholars as colonial mentality. And colonial mentality had centuries to take hold. The ...The third-generation Filipino-American who was born and raised in Hilo, Hawai’i, dedicated himself instead to the local Hawaiian food that feeds his ‘ohana—his family and neighbors. With uncomplicated, flavor-forward recipes, he shows us the many cultures that have come to create the cuisine of his beloved home: the native Hawaiian ...Filipino-Americans are full-fledged American citizens. When introducing themselves to the world, they are Americans and accorded all the rights and privileges of American citizens. When they need identification and travel documents, they go to American agencies; abroad, they go to American …American and Filipino soldiers scrambled from their foxholes, defense lines crumbled, and Japanese troops with fixed bayonets broke through the front on the night of April 6. The enemy burst through the left flank of Parker’s U.S. Second Corps and pushed it back 10 miles in 48 hours. On the left, Wainwright’s First Corps was … The ensuing Philippine-American War lasted three years and resulted in the death of over 4,200 American and over 20,000 Filipino combatants. As many as 200,000 Filipino civilians died from violence, famine, and disease. The decision by U.S. policymakers to annex the Philippines was not without domestic controversy. By: Christopher Klein. Updated: September 21, 2023 | Original: November 11, 2019. copy page link. American soldiers of 6th Ranger battalion & Filipino guerrillas …Solidarity across racial lines. There’s also many instances of Black-Filipino solidarity — and vice versa — including when Black soldiers fought alongside Filipinos during the Philippine-American War, which took place from 1899 to 1902, and chronicled Filipinos’ fight for independence from the United States following the end of the Spanish-American …Kinue TOKUDOME. April 9, 2008 marks the 66th anniversary of the fall of Bataan which resulted in the largest surrender by the United States Army in its history. Over 77,000 American and Filipino troops were to become victims of one of the most brutal episodes in the Pacific War—the Bataan Death March. The March: Beginning of the Ordeal.Religion. Just like most countries in Latin America, the vast majority of the Filipino population is Catholic (about 90%). And like all good Catholics, Filipinos and Latinos really love baby Jesus ...This one example reveals how Filipino Americans and Mexican Americans have stood together in the struggle for equal rights and fair treatment. For that reason, I …Congress approved President McKinley's request for a declaration of war on April 25, 1898; yet the Spanish-American War was the culmination of decades of pressure toward U.S. expansionism.In the United States, October marks Filipino-American History Month. While this month purposefully celebrates the histories and stories of the Filipino-American culture, I want to point out the similarities the separate Filipino and American cultures have. Born out of shared historical events, the separate …Nov 11, 2019 · The 2009 American Recovery and Reinvestment Act provided for one-time, lump-sum payments of $15,000 to surviving Filipino veterans who were American citizens and $9,000 to non-citizens. As of ... As of 2019, there were 4.2 million Filipinos, or Americans with Filipino ancestry, in the United States with large communities in California, Hawaii, Illinois, Texas, Florida, and …Hi all! I just got married a few months ago after 1.5 years of wedding planning with fiance. I'm Filipino-American, he's Caucasian-American. We had a few different points of anxiety over the wedding planning period, and I'm hoping to use this posts to help other mixed-race weddings that have a bit of everything going on.Filipino American musicians have, over generations, made an impact on U.S. charts. The explosive R&B singer-dancer Sugar Pie DeSanto toured with James Brown and found national success in the the ...Mar 10, 2023 · The United States’ drive to extend influence across the Pacific instigated a Philippine American War. Fighting broke out on Feb. 4, 1899, and eventually far exceeded that against Spain. At the outbreak, the U.S. had only a small amount of troops in the Philippines compared to Aguinaldo’s 40,000 fighters. As of 2019, there were 4.2 million Filipinos, or Americans with Filipino ancestry, in the United States [12] [13] with large communities in California, Hawaii, Illinois, Texas, Florida, and the New York metropolitan area. [14] Terminology. The term Filipino American is sometimes shortened to Fil-Am [15] or Pinoy. [16] . See moreGLENDALE, Calif. — Seven Filipino American contemporary artists are set to showcase Philippine heritage and its influence on California’s cultural tapestry in an … Philippine-American War. U.S. troops in the Philippines during the Philippine-American War (1899–1902). Meanwhile, the Filipino government had fled northward. In November 1899 the Filipinos resorted to guerrilla warfare, with all its devastating consequences. The major operations of the insurrection were conducted in Luzon, and, throughout ... Hi all! I just got married a few months ago after 1.5 years of wedding planning with fiance. I'm Filipino-American, he's Caucasian-American. We had a few different points of anxiety over the wedding planning period, and I'm hoping to use this posts to help other mixed-race weddings that have a bit of everything going on. As Filipino-American sociologist Anthony Christian Ocampo, author of The Latinos of Asia: How Filipinos Break the Rule of Race, plainly states, “You can’t just forget the three-and-a-half century Spanish influence in the Philippines.” See below for to learn more about the Hispanic identity of the Philippines, Filipinos, and Filipino ...Filipino-Americans are full-fledged American citizens. When introducing themselves to the world, they are Americans and accorded all the rights and privileges of American citizens. When they need identification and travel documents, they go to American agencies; abroad, they go to American …FILIPINO AMERICANS. FILIPINO AMERICANS are immigrants to the United States from one of the 7,107 islands and islets that form the archipelago of the Philippines, and their U.S.-born descendants. In the United States, Filipinos are categorized as Asian Americans.This official category is used to refer to people …The United States and the Philippines benefit from unique bonds of friendship and community among our peoples, and millions of Filipino Americans enrich communities across the United States.Filipino population in the U.S., 2000-2019. 1M 2M 3M 4M 5M 2000 2005 2010 2015. Note: Based on mixed-race and mixed-group populations, regardless of Hispanic …The use of slang among Filipinos and Filipino Americans is no different We have used slang to include, exclude, and rebel in many forms. On this TFAL mini episode, we discuss Filipino and Filipino American slang. We explore Filipino “tadbalik,” the practice of inverting and reversing letters and syllables of words to give them new meanings ...May 1, 2023 · The United States and the Philippines benefit from unique bonds of friendship and community among our peoples, and millions of Filipino Americans enrich communities across the United States. Filipino population in the U.S., 2000-2019. 1M 2M 3M 4M 5M 2000 2005 2010 2015. Note: Based on mixed-race and mixed-group populations, regardless of Hispanic … The issue was no longer in doubt. American and Filipino soldiers scrambled from their foxholes, defense lines crumbled, and Japanese troops with fixed bayonets broke through the front on the night of April 6. The enemy burst through the left flank of Parker’s U.S. Second Corps and pushed it back 10 miles in 48 hours. 1. Honor the Filipino Veterans from World War II. View A Long Road to Dignity, an exhibit portraying Filipino veterans’ wartime experiences and a long struggle in its aftermath. In World War II, Filipino soldiers responded to the call …The major theme portrayed is a feeling of pressure to assimilate to American culture yet being resilient to these forces. Drawing from data from the 2000 U.S. census, Filipino-Americans are more likely to marry Whites than other Asians when it comes to husbands and wives. [4] This indicates a want to increase status on the racial hierarchy … The Filipino American National Historical Society Journal is the only journal devoted exclusively to the identification, gathering, preservation, and dissemination of Filipino American history and culture in the U.S. The society was founded in Seattle, Washington in 1982 by Dorothy Laigo Cordova and Fred Cordova, and now hosts 40+ regional ... A burial detail of American and Filipino prisoners of war uses improvised litters to carry fallen comrades at Camp O'Donnell, Capas, Tarlac, 1942, following the Bataan Death March. Date. 9–17 April 1942. Location. Mariveles, Bataan and Bagac, Bataan to Capas, Tarlac, Luzon Island, Philippines. Casualties and losses.Oct 21, 2022 · It is known as the Delano Grape Strike and Filipino-American Larry Itliong is known as the father of the strike as he declared it. Filipino Americans also served in World War II. And during the COVID-19 pandemic, many served as healthcare workers, doctors and nurses. Today, a number of Filipino Americans work under the Biden Administration. A Spanish quest to find gold-rich islands off the coast of present-day California ended in the death of two sailors (among them, a Filipino crew member) at the hands of Morro Bay Native Americans.We envision Filipino American communities that are culturally, economically, and politically empowered and engaged. NaFFAA’s vision is to serve as the voice of all Filipinos and Filipino Americans by uniting, engaging, and empowering diverse individuals and community organizations through four main pillars: Civic Engagement, National …Solidarity across racial lines. There’s also many instances of Black-Filipino solidarity — and vice versa — including when Black soldiers fought alongside Filipinos during the Philippine-American War, which took place from 1899 to 1902, and chronicled Filipinos’ fight for independence from the United States following the end of the Spanish-American …U.S.-PHILIPPINES RELATIONS. The United States established diplomatic relations with the Philippines in 1946. U.S.-Philippine relations are based on strong …The Filipino-American war, the first of many that Americans would fight in Asia, soon degenerated into a cruel war of extermination. American troops burned villages to deprive guerillas of support, herding inhabitants into concentration camps. They executed prisoners and any males suspected of being an insurgent as young as ten years old.Philippines - Culture, Diversity, Traditions: Philippine society is a unique blend of diversity and homogeneity. Although geographically part of Southeast Asia, the country is culturally strongly Euro-American. Forces of assimilation have constantly worked to overcome cultural differences between the various ethnic groups that are scattered—sometimes in relative …FILIPINO AMERICANS. FILIPINO AMERICANS are immigrants to the United States from one of the 7,107 islands and islets that form the archipelago of the Philippines, and their U.S.-born descendants. In the United States, Filipinos are categorized as Asian Americans.This official category is used to refer to people …The final liberation of the Philippines at the end of World War II released Filipinos from years of torment—but recognition of their courage and sacrifice was slow in coming. Seventy-five years ago, Japan officially surrendered aboard the USS Missouri in Tokyo Bay on September 2, 1945. The 23-minute ceremony ended the Pacific war, which had ...Sep 19, 2015 · Cesar Chavez inspired the world; Larry Itliong inspired Cesar Chavez. In 1965, the Filipino laborer led California grape pickers on a strike that would spark the modern farmworker movement. Filipino Americans also have largely positive views of the United States, with 76% seeing it in a favorable light. Filipino immigrants, Republicans and those 50 and …Plastic: Standard: a polymeric material; Filipino: a fake friend or person; Unique Filipino English Words. Ambush interview: an unscheduled interview that occurs because someone has been forced or tricked into on-the-spot participation Batchmate: A person's classmates at school who graduate in the …As of 2019, there were 4.2 million Filipinos, or Americans with Filipino ancestry, in the United States [12] [13] with large communities in California, Hawaii, Illinois, Texas, Florida, and the New York metropolitan area. [14] Terminology. The term Filipino American is sometimes shortened to Fil-Am [15] or Pinoy. [16] . See moreTen Americans and two Filipinos had survived the ultra-brutal conditions of the Death March only to face the degradation of forced labor. Transferred near the city of Davao on the island of Mindanao in the southern Philippines, the journey from the nightmarish Camp One at Cabanatuan in November 1942 took them 10 days—by foot, train, and ...Congress approved President McKinley's request for a declaration of war on April 25, 1898; yet the Spanish-American War was the culmination of decades of pressure toward U.S. expansionism.The Filipino-American war, the first of many that Americans would fight in Asia, soon degenerated into a cruel war of extermination. American troops burned villages to deprive guerillas of support, herding inhabitants into concentration camps. They executed prisoners and any males suspected of being an insurgent as young as ten years old.There were two phases to the Philippine-American War. The first phase, from February to November of 1899, was dominated by Aguinaldo’s ill-fated attempts to fight a … ---1